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十大经济学基本规律

2016-12-22Mueller凤凰财知道
文/Antony P. Mueller 译/David Wu
Mises.org 授权翻译

在这么多经济学谬论不厌其烦地不停重复的情况下,回顾一些最基本的经济学规律,会对大家有所助益。这里有十个这样的规律,值得我们反复回味。

1、生产先于消费

为了消费一样东西,显然这样东西首先必须存在,然而,刺激消费以扩大生产的观点包围了我们。消费财货可不是从天上掉下来。它们处于被称为“生产结构”的一长串错综生产过程的末端。即便生产一个看似简单的物品,例如一根铅笔,也需要一个各生产过程编织而成的复杂网络。这个网络可以回溯至很久以前,并跨越世界各国和各个大洲。

2、消费是生产的最终目标

消费是经济活动的目标,而生产是其手段。充分就业的倡导者,违背了这个明显观念。就业计划把生产本身变为目标。消费者对消费财货的评价,决定了生产财货的价值。当前的消费来自这个延伸至过去的生产过程,这种生产结构的价值,取决于消费者的当前评价状态以及预期的未来状态。因此,消费者是资本主义经济中生产设备最终的实际“主人”。

3、生产具有成本

没有免费午餐这回事。获得某些看似免费的东西,仅仅意味着别人要为它付出代价。每张福利支票和每笔科研补助金的背后,是活生生的人缴纳的税收。纳税人只看到政府没收了个人收入的一部分,可他们并不知道这些钱是用到谁身上;而政府开支的接受者只看到政府把钱给他们,他们也不晓得政府是从谁那里拿走了这笔钱。

4、价值是主观的

评价是主观的,并且随个人情况而变化。同一物质财货,对于不同人具有不同的价值。效用是主观的、个人的、情境的和边际的。没有集体消费这样的东西。即使同处一室,不同人感觉到的冷暖也不同。同一场足球比赛,对每位观众具有不同的主观价值,这在一支球队进球得分时可以很容易地看出。

5、生产率决定工资率

每时产出决定了工人的每时工资率。在自由劳动力市场上,只要他们的边际生产率高于工资率,企业就会雇用更多的工人。企业之间的竞争,推动工资率达到与生产率相匹配的程度。工会的力量也许会改变不同劳动群体之间的工资分配,但工会不可能改变总体的工资水平。总工资水平取决于劳动生产率。

6、开支既是收入也是成本

开支不仅是收入,而且代表着成本。开支同时是买方的成本和卖方的收入。收入等于成本。财政乘数作用的机理,意味着成本随收入而增加。一旦收入倍增,成本也跟着倍增。凯恩斯的财政乘数模型,忽略了成本的效应。指望公共开支的收入效应而忽略成本效应的政府政策,导致了严重的政策错误。

7、货币并非财富

货币价值在于其购买力。货币是交换工具。一个人的财富是他可获得的日用所需的商品和服务。国家作为一个整体,不可能通过增加它的货币量来增加财富。只有购买力才意味着财富的这个规律表明,即使鲁滨逊在他的孤岛上发现一座金矿,或者一个装满了钞票的钱箱,也不会因此更加富有。

8、劳动不创造价值

劳动与其他生产要素结合创造产品,但产品的价值取决于它的效用,而效用取决于主观的个人评价。为了就业的就业没有任何经济意义。真正有意义的是价值创造。一项产品,要成为有用之物,就必须为消费者带来好处。财货的价值与生产它付出的努力无关。马拉松专业运动员,可不会因为跑马拉松比一次冲刺需要付出更多的时间和精力,就会赚到多于短跑运动员的奖金。

9、利润是对企业家的奖赏

在竞争资本主义中,经济利润是企业修补资源配置错误而赚取到手的额外奖金。在一个没有变化的稳态循环经济中,既没有利润,也没有损失,所有公司获得同等的利率。然而,在不断增长的经济当中,会有变化发生,而对各种变化的预测,则是经济利润的来源。卓越地预测到未来需求的企业,会获得高额利润率而不断成长;那些未能预测到消费者需求的企业家,就必然会面临业务萎缩直至最后的关停倒闭。

10、一切真正的经济规律都是逻辑规律

经济规律是综合先验推理。我们不能凭经验捏造这些规律,因为它们本身是真实的。因此,基本经济规律不需要经验验证。提及经验事实,仅仅起到举例说明的作用,它们并非对规律的陈述。人们可以忽略和违背经济学基本规律,但是无法改变它们。那些民众和政府承认与尊重这些基本经济规律并善加用之的社会,也是表现最好的社会。

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Ten fundamental laws of economics

            Antony P. Mueller

I
Production precedes consumption
Although it is obvious that in order to consume something it must first exist, the idea to stimulate consumption in order to expand production is all around us. However, consumption goods do not just fall from the sky. They are at the end of a long chain of intertwined production processes called the “structure of production”. Even the production of an apparently simple item such as a pencil, for example, requires an intricate network of production processes that extend far back into time and run across countries and continents. 

II
Consumption is the final goal of production
Consumption is the objective of economic activity, and production is its means. The advocates of full employment violate this obvious idea. Employment programs turn production itself into the objective. The valuation of consumption goods by the consumers determines the value of production goods. Current consumption results from the production process that extends to the past, yet the value of this production structure depends on the current state of valuation by the consumers and the expected future state. Therefore, the consumers are the final de facto owners of the production apparatus in a capitalist economy.
  
III
Production has costs
There is no such thing as a free lunch. Getting something apparently gratis only means that some other person pays for it. Behind every welfare check and each research grant lies the tax money of real people. While the taxpayers see that government confiscates part of one’s personal income, they do not know to whom this money goes; and while the recipients of government expenditures see the government handing the money to them, they do not know from whom the government has taken away this money.  

IV
Value is subjective
Valuation is subjective and varies with the an individual’s situation. The same physical good has different values to different persons. Utility is subjective, individual, situational and marginal. There is no such thing as collective consumption. Even the temperature in the same room feels differently to different persons. The same football match has a different subjective value for each viewer as can be easily seen the moment when a team scores.  

 V
Productivity determines the wage rate
The output per hour determines the worker’s wage rate per hour. In a free labor market, businesses will hire additional workers as long as their marginal productivity is higher than the wage rate. Competition among the firms will drive up the wage rate to the point where it matches productivity. The power of labor unions may change the distribution of wages among the different labor groups, but trade unions cannot change the overall wage level, which depends on labor productivity.


VI
Expenditure is income and costs
Expenditure is not only income, but also represents costs. Spending counts as costs for the buyer and income for the seller. Income equals costs. The mechanism of the fiscal multiplier implies that costs rise with income. In as much as income multiplies, costs multiply as well. The Keynesian fiscal multiplier model ignores the cost effect. Grave policy errors are the result when government policies count on the income effect of public expenditures but ignore the cost effect.  

VII
Money is not wealth
The value of money consists in its purchasing power. Money serves as an instrument of exchange. The wealth of a person exists in its access to the goods and services he desires. The nation as a whole cannot increase its wealth by increasing its stock of money. The principle that only purchasing power means wealth says that Robinson Crusoe would not be a penny richer if he found a gold mine on his island or a case full of bank notes.  

VIII
Labor does not create value
Labor, in combination with the other factors of production, creates products, but the value of the product depends on its utility. Utility depends on subjective individual valuation. Employment for sake of employment makes no economic sense. What counts is value creation. In order to be useful, a product must create benefits for the consumer. The value of a good exists independent from the effort of producing it. Professional marathon runners do not earn more prize money than sprinters because running the marathon takes more time and effort than a sprint.
  
IX
Profit is the entrepreneurial bonus
In competitive capitalism, economic profit is the extra bonus that those businesses earn that fix allocative errors. In an evenly rotating economy with no change, there would be neither profit nor loss and all companies would earn the same rate of interest. In a growing economy, however, change takes place and anticipating changes is the source of economic profits. Business who do well in forecasting future demand earn high rates of profit and will grow, while those entrepreneurs who fail to anticipate the wants of the consumers will shrink and finally must shut down.  

X
All genuine laws of economics are logical laws
Economic laws are synthetic a priori reasoning. One cannot falsify such laws empirically because they are true in themselves. As such, the fundamental economic laws do not require empirical verification. Reference to empirical facts serve merely as illustrative examples, they are not statements of principles. One can ignore and violate the fundamental laws of economics but one cannot change them. Those societies fare best where people and government recognize and respect these fundamental economic laws and use them to their advantage.

LINK para versão em PDF para compartilhar:
THE CONTINENTAL ECONOMICS INSTITTUTE
Antony P. Mueller
December 6, 2016